Background papers and case studies Introduction Barber, C. (2005) ‘Notes on Poverty and Inequality’. Beghin, N. (2008) ‘Inequality and Poverty in Brazil: Current Situation and Challenges’. Green, D. (2006) ‘Equality, Inequality, and Equity: Where Do These Fit in the Poverty Agenda?’ King, R. (2007) ‘Global Inequality’. Power and Politics Beall, J. and S. Fox (2007) ‘Urban Poverty and Development in the 21st Century: Towards an Inclusive and Sustainable World’, Oxfam Research Reports, Oxfam GB. Caceres, E. (2007) ‘Territories and Citizenship: the Revolution of the Chiquitanos in Bolivia’. Cerdeña, K.M. (2007) ‘Indigenous People’s Education: Mindanao, the Philippines’. Ciconello, A. (2007) ‘The Challenge of Eliminating Racism in Brazil: the New Institutional Framework for Fighting Racial Inequality’. Ciconello, A. (2007) ‘Social Participation as a Democracy-Consolidating Process in Brazil’. Essoyan, C. (2007) ‘Israel: The ADVA Center: an Equality and Social Justice NGO’. Essoyan, C. (2007) ‘The Centre for Trade Union and Workers’ Services (CTUWS), Egypt’. Fung, K. (2007) ‘Oxfam Hong Kong’s Advocacy Work on the Relocation of Rural Schools in China’. Hine, C. and M. Cacace (2007) ‘Armenia’s Community-Based Healthcare Programme’. Hine, C. and M. Cacace (2007) ‘Israel: Advocacy on Employment Issues for Arab Women’. 447 FROM POVERTY TO POWER Horner, L. (2006) ‘Democracy and Building Political Voice’. Judeh, R. (2007) ‘Capacity Building in Serbia: Roma Organisations’. Mahmoud, O., S. Aikman, and M. Kamal-Yanni (2006) ‘Essential Services Background Paper’. Oxfam Australia (2007) ‘Land Rights in Papua New Guinea’. Oxfam Australia (2007) ‘Natural Resources and Forestry in the Solomon Islands’. Oxfam GB (2007) ‘Social Spending Advocacy in Guatemala’. Pandjiarjian, V. (2001), adapted by Sweetman, C. (2006) ‘Campaigning on Reproductive and Sexual Rights: CLADEM and the African Women’s Protocol’. Sweetman, C. (2006) ‘Change Models: What Worked to Gain Suffrage for Women?’. Sweetman, C. (2006) ‘How Title Deeds Make Sex Safer: Women’s Property Rights in an Era of HIV’. Sweetman, C. (2007) ‘Women’s Political Participation and Leadership’. van Tongeren, P. and M. Nahabedian (2007) ‘The Georgian Young Lawyers Association (GYLA)’. Poverty and Wealth Borkenhagen, L. with N. Fenton (2006) ‘Rural Realities, Now and in the Future’. Chaudhry, P. (2007) ‘Why Has Viet Nam Achieved Growth with Equity, and China Hasn’t?’. Gaye, M. (2006) ‘Agricultural Reforms and Rural Poverty: The Case of the Peanut Industry in Senegal’. Hine, C. and M. Cacace (2007) ‘Rebuilding the Co-operative Ethic in Albania’. Hine, C. and M. Cacace (2007) ‘Russia: Economic Marginalisation’. Kidder, T. and M.S. Smiaroski (2006) ‘Decent Work’. Le Quang, B. (2006) ‘What Has Made Viet Nam a Poverty-Reduction Success Story?’. Raworth, K., S. Dhanarajan, and L. Wren-Lewis (2006) ‘The Private Sector and Poverty Reduction’. 448 background papers and case studies Raworth, K. and L. Wren-Lewis (2006) ‘Private Sector Case Studies: How the Biggest Supermarket in Africa Started Buying Locally Grown Vegetables in Zambia’. Stockbridge, M. (2007) ‘Agricultural Trade Policy in Developing Countries During Take-off’, Oxfam Research Reports, Oxfam GB. Sweetman, C. (2006) ‘Feminist Economics’. Taylor, L. and R. von Arnim (2007) ‘Modelling the Impact of Trade Liberalisation: A Critique of Computable General Equilibrium Models’, Oxfam Research Reports, Oxfam GB. Tórrez, B. (2007) ‘Building Advocacy Capacity and Labour Rights in the Garment Industry in Honduras (CODEMUH)’. van Mulekom, L. (2007) ‘Reflections on Community-Based Coastal Resources Management (CB-CRM) in the Philippines and South-East Asia’. Viñuales, D. (2007) ‘Market Access for Indigenous Women Producers in Guatemala’. Human security Cairns, E. (2006) ‘Security Background Paper’. Coulibaly, M. (2007) ‘From Moratorium to a Convention on Small Arms: A Change in Politics and Practices for the 15 Member Countries of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)’. Doran, A. (2006) ‘Private Sector Microfinance’. Fried, M. (2007) ‘Somaliland: Local Resources for Development’. Goulet, L. (2007) ‘Ethiopia: The ABCD Project’. Grootenhuis, F. (2007) ‘Community Recovery Grants Supporting Gotong Royong in Indonesia’. Henderson-Andrade, N. (2006) ‘Health Risks’. Hine, C. and M. Cacace (2007) ‘Yemen: Advocacy on Violence Against Women’. MacAuslan, I. (2007) ‘India’s National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: A Case Study for How Change Happens’. Ng, D. (2007) ‘The All Ukraine Network of People Living With HIV (PLWH)’. Oxfam GB (2007) ‘Haiti: Community Information Campaigns for Disaster Risk Reduction’. Oxfam GB (2007) ‘Justice for Maria: Violence against Women in Guatemala’. 449 FROM POVERTY TO POWER Turnbull, M. with E. Smith and D. Walker (2006) ‘From Vicious Spirals of Vulnerability to Virtuous Spirals of Disaster Risk Reduction’. Viñuales, D. (2007) ‘Nicaragua: A Tool Against Climate Change – and Hurricanes’. The International System Barber, C. (2006) ‘The Logic of Migration’. Fenton, N. (2005) ‘Aid and Middle-Income Countries’. Fraser, A. (2006) ‘International Finance Background Paper’. Hill, A. (2006) ‘Environment and Climate Change’. Kimmis, J. (2005) ‘Financial Markets and Developing Countries’. King, R. (2007) ‘Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Technology, and Economic Growth’. Mulley, S. (2006) ‘Global Governance’. Prasopa-Plaizier, M. (2006) ‘Improving the Provision of Humanitarian Assistance in Major Crises’. 450 Glossary Accountability The means by which power is used responsibly. In the humanitarian context, accountability involves taking account of, and accounting to, beneficiaries of aid. The combination of rights and obligations that link individuals to the state, including paying taxes, obeying laws, and exercising political, civil, and social rights. Active citizens use these rights to improve the quality of political or civic life, often through collective action. Active citizenship Antiretrovirals Drugs used to treat retroviruses, primarily HIV. Different ARVs are used at different stages of the HIV life cycle and, typically, in combinations of three or four different drugs. Biofuels Most commonly, crops such as corn, sugar cane, or oilseed rape that are processed to make bioethanol, an alcohol that is blended with petrol, or biodiesel. Biofuels were initially hailed as a ‘green’ alternative to fossil fuels, but there is evidence that the rush to cultivate fuel crops is having adverse environmental impacts of its own and is also putting serious pressure on food production. The removal of government barriers to international flows of capital, a policy recommended to many developing-country governments by institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank, in order to boost efficiency and growth. However, in many cases it has also led to volatility and instability in financial markets. Capital account liberalisation Carbon trading The two main types of carbon trading are emissions trading, or ‘cap and trade’, under which governments set a ceiling on emissions from a particular sector and companies are allocated a tradeable allowance for their emissions; and offset trading, which involves reducing emissions from projects outside an economy that has a mandatory cap on emissions (for example, in a developing country). 451 FROM POVERTY TO POWER Comparative advantage Theory advanced by nineteenth-century economist David Ricardo that countries can attain greater wealth by producing only goods that are relatively efficient to produce, then trading those goods with other countries, rather than trying to produce all goods for themselves. Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. ‘Corruption for need’ refers to small-scale charges levied by officials who are themselves poorly paid; ‘corruption for greed’ is graft on a grander scale, typically involving senior officials, governments, or transnational corporations. Term popularised by economist Joseph Schumpeter (in his 1942 book Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy) to describe transformation and upheaval that leads to radical innovation. According to this concept, entrepreneurs play a particularly important role in stimulating economic growth. Can take different forms: for example, in poor countries, governments may have unmanageable debts owed to creditor governments or to international financial institutions; in middle-income countries, mass default on private debt can destabilise the economy, or governments may be unable to repay public and private creditors. The first is typically a chronic problem (debt crisis); the second two tend to be sudden-onset crises linked to capital markets (financial crisis). In international trade, when a government or manufacturer in one country exports a product to another country at a price lower than the domestic price, or lower than the cost of production. The practice can distort international trade and hurt producers in poor countries. A state that can guarantee security and the rule of law, and can design and implement an effective strategy to ensure inclusive economic growth. Such a state should be accountable to citizens and able to guarantee their rights. A special economic or free trade zone, typically in a developing country, that offers exemptions from bureaucracy, taxes, and tariffs, with the aim of attracting foreign investment. Although EPZs often succeed in this aim, their lack of regulation often also results in poor pay and conditions for the workers employed in them. Corruption Creative destruction Debt/financial crisis Dumping Effective state Exportprocessing zone 452 glossary Fairtrade Fairtrade products carry the FAIRTRADE Mark, which guarantees that the market chain for the product is certified by the Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO) to fulfil international social, economic, and environmental standards. A minimum price is paid to the producer in advance, plus an additional premium that must be spent on community development. Flexible labour ‘Flexibility’ can sometimes benefit workers in terms of leave entitlement or working hours, but more commonly it involves low pay, temporary contracts, poor working conditions, and a lack of recognition of labour rights. It also makes it easier for employers to hire or fire staff. Free trade agreement Bilateral or regional trade agreements to reduce tariffs and regulation of trade and investment flows. FTAs can involve significant disparities in rights and benefits between parties (in market access, tariffs, intellectual property), particularly if one is a developing country and the other a powerful developed country or trading bloc. The pricing of goods and services to reflect their true costs, including cost of manufacture, cost of disposal, and impact on the environment. Also takes account of the value to the economy of unpaid work, which is undertaken largely by women. Copies of pharmaceutical products no longer protected by patent. They contain the same active ingredients as original branded drugs, though not necessarily in the identical formulation. They are cheaper than branded drugs as manufacturers do not incur the research and development costs associated with new medicines and, once a patent has expired, competition between manufacturers drives down market prices. Refers to the big increase in agricultural productivity in Asia in the 1960s and 1970s. It was led by technological innovation based on new varieties of rice and wheat and the use of chemical fertilisers, coupled with state investment in irrigation, infrastructure such as roads, and new institutions to ensure stable crop prices. Full-cost accounting Generic medicines Green Revolution 453 FROM POVERTY TO POWER HIV and AIDS HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is a virus, while AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is a syndrome of opportunistic infections and diseases that can develop at the end stage of HIV infection. It is not possible to die from HIV itself. Indeed, many HIV-positive people, with a good diet and access to drugs, live a relatively normal life and may not develop AIDS for a very long time. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and other supra-national financial bodies such as regional development banks. Economic theory based on the work of British economist John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946). Keynes promoted a mixed economy in which both the state and the private sector play important roles. Financial services designed to reduce poverty by giving poor people access to credit, insurance, savings, fund transfers, and so on. Microfinance can be organised at the community level among groups of community members, or can be provided more formally by micro finance institutions or NGOs. When referring to climate change, ‘mitigation’ means reducing emissions of harmful greenhouse gases; when discussing natural disasters, it refers to reducing their potential impact. An approach to economics, frequently embraced by institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, that relates supply and demand to the ability of individuals to maximise utility or profit. Typically based on mathematical modelling, it is often criticised for its reliance on hypothetical assumptions that fail to take account of complex human behaviour in the real world. Pastoral agriculture is based on the raising of animals such as cattle, camels, goats, and sheep, which typically represent the pastoralist’s main economic resource. Pastoralism is found in many forms in different parts of the world, but commonly includes a mobile aspect, with pastoralists moving (often over long distances) in search of water and fresh pasture, according to season and environmental conditions. International financial institutions Keynesian economics Microfinance Mitigation Neoclassical economics Pastoralism 454 glossary Remittances Money sent by migrant workers in foreign countries back to their families at home. Remittances make a significant contribution to the economies of developing countries. An approach to human development that unites economic and social rights with political and civil rights, aiming to build a ‘social contract’ between state and citizen. At its core is the idea that all people are of equal dignity and worth, and have natural rights but also responsibilities towards their communities. In developing countries, SMEs typically play a much more important role in creating employment (and reinforcing local linkages) for poor people than do trans national corporations. The social resources that people draw on, including informal networks with individuals or institutions such as political or civic bodies; membership of formalised groups such as churches; and relationships of trust, reciprocity, and exchange. Consists of two components: social assistance transfers resources to vulnerable groups in the form of pensions, child-support grants, and so on, while social insurance allows individuals and households to protect themselves against risks by pooling resources with others. In the 1980s and 1990s, SAPs were agreed between many developing-country governments and the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. In return for economic assistance, countries were frequently forced to accept conditions of economic restructuring that undermined their social services and their ability to develop viable industrial or agricultural sectors of their own. Defined by the Brundtland Report of 1987 as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Economic term describing the rate of exchange between different kinds of goods, such as raw materials and manufactured goods; presented, for example, as the number of bags of coffee or barrels of oil needed to buy a truck. Rights-based approach Small and medium-sized enterprises Social capital Social protection Structural adjustment programme Sustainable development Terms of trade 455 FROM POVERTY TO POWER Transfer pricing A manoeuvre used by transnational corporations to minimise their tax liability. It involves either under- or over-charging for trade within different company affiliates to reduce the amount of tax liable in a particular jurisdiction. The reduced ability of communities or households to cope either with personal stresses such as death in the family, sickness, robbery, eviction, or the loss of a job or a crop, or a major event such as a drought or a conflict that affects the whole community. A private company that buys the debt of a developingcountry government at a low price, and then attempts to sue the government for the full amount, plus interest. Economic orthodoxy embraced by economists, politicians, and institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund in the 1980s and 1990s. It held that developing countries could solve their economic problems by curbing inflation, reducing the power of the state, and unleashing market forces. It led to market liberalisation and the implementation of structural adjustment programmes in dozens of developing countries, often with negative outcomes for development. Vulnerability Vulture fund Washington Consensus 456